ISRO PSLV-C62/EOS-N1 Mission Anomaly

Introduction

• Science and technology update on ISRO’s PSLV-C62 mission carrying the EOS-N1 earth observation satellite with co-passenger satellites and a technology demonstrator.

Why in news?

• The PSLV-C62/EOS-N1 mission encountered an anomaly during the third stage.
• It marked the 64th flight of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV).
• It was the 9th dedicated commercial mission undertaken by New Space India Limited (NSIL).

Background

• NSIL is a wholly owned Government company incorporated in 2019 under the administrative control of the Department of Space and is the commercial arm of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
• The mission included the launch of the EOS-N1 earth observation satellite along with 15 co-passenger satellites from domestic and international customers.
• EOS-N1 is designed to strengthen space-based monitoring capabilities.
• It also demonstrated KID (Kestrel Initial Technology Demonstrator) from a Spanish start-up, a small-scale prototype of a re-entry vehicle slated to re-enter the Earth’s atmosphere towards splashdown in the South Pacific Ocean.
• EOS-N1 and 14 co-passenger satellites were to be injected into a Sun Synchronous Orbit, and the KID capsule into a re-entry trajectory.

Significance

• EOS-N1 enhances space-based monitoring capabilities.
• KID provides a demonstration of a small-scale re-entry vehicle through atmospheric re-entry and splashdown.

Facts/General knowledge

• PSLV is a third-generation launch vehicle and the first Indian launch vehicle equipped with liquid stages; it is considered the workhorse of ISRO.
• It has consistently delivered satellites to Low Earth Orbits and can take up to 1,750 kg of payload to Sun-Synchronous Polar Orbits of 600 km altitude.
• Stages in PSLV: First Stage: S139 solid rocket motor augmented by six solid strap-on boosters.

• Second Stage: Earth storable liquid rocket engine known as the Vikas engine, developed by the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre.
• Third Stage: Solid rocket motor providing high thrust to the upper stages.
• Fourth Stage: Uppermost stage comprising two Earth storable liquid engines.
• Notable PSLV missions include Chandrayaan-1, Mars Orbiter Mission, Aditya-L1 and Astrosat; PSLV set a world record by launching 104 satellites in a single mission in 2017.

AyulSAT in-orbit refuelling demonstration

Introduction

• AyulSAT is a dedicated tanker-satellite and target spacecraft designed to demonstrate in-orbit transfer using a standardised docking and refuelling interface.
• It aims to prove in-orbit propellant transfer and docking readiness and to lay the foundation of an on-orbit space economy.

Why in news?

• India is set to demonstrate in-orbit satellite refuelling for the first time as Chennai-based OrbitAid’s AyulSAT is launched onboard ISRO’s PSLV-C62.

Background

• Developed by OrbitAid Aerospace, a Chennai-based Indian space start-up founded by Sakthikumar Ramachandran.
• Intended to enable satellite servicing.
• Commercially oriented, deploying India’s first commercial docking and refuelling interface in orbit.

Significance

• Extends the operational life of satellites in LEO and GEO by enabling refuelling instead of abandonment.
• Reduces space debris by preventing dead satellites from becoming orbital junk, supporting Debris-Free Space Mission 2030.

Facts/General knowledge

• Mass: 25 kg.
• Internal refuelling demonstration transfers fuel between tanks within the same satellite to study fluid behaviour in microgravity.
• Uses OrbitAid’s Standard Interface for Docking and Refuelling Port (SIDRP) for future spacecraft-to-spacecraft refuelling.
• Enables multi-utility transfer: fuel, power and data.
• RPOD-ready target satellite for a future chaser that will dock and perform actual in-orbit refuelling by end-2026.
• Topic: COSMOSkyMed Second Generation (CSGFM3) Launch by SpaceX

Introduction

• On 2 January 2026, SpaceX launched the COSMO SkyMed Second Generation Flight Model 3 (CSG FM3) Earth observation satellite for the Italian Space Agency (ASI) and the Italian Ministry of Defence.
• The mission used a Falcon 9 rocket from Vandenberg Space Force Base, California, United States of America.
• This satellite is the third in the COSMOSkyMed SecondGeneration series.
• The upper stage deployed the satellite into a sunsynchronous low Earth orbit at around 620 kilometres altitude.

Why in news?

• It is SpaceX’s first mission of 2026.
• It is the first orbital rocket launch globally in 2026.

Background

• COSMO SkyMed is managed by ASI and Italy’s Ministry of Defence and operated by Telespazio, capturing high resolution images day and night in all weather conditions.
• The first generation COSMO SkyMed constellation comprised four satellites launched from 2007 to 2010 for disaster monitoring, environment, agriculture, and defence over the Mediterranean.
• The second generation CSG satellites (around 2,205 kilograms) are upgraded versions with more advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar sensors and improved imaging capabilities.
• The system was designed from the start as a dual use constellation, supporting both civilian and defence applications 24 hours a day, in all weather conditions.

Significance

• CSGFM3 strengthens the COSMOSkyMed SecondGeneration constellation developed by Italy to enhance global radar imaging capabilities.
• It supports national security, maritime surveillance, border monitoring, and strategic planning.
• It enables realtime tracking of natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, landslides, and wildfires, and monitors glacier movement.
• It assesses forest health, crop conditions, and soil moisture.
• It provides highresolution radar maps for cartography, urban planning, land use, and infrastructure monitoring.

Facts/General knowledge

• Falcon 9 is a reusable firststage booster capable of carrying satellites to low Earth orbit and beyond, supporting commercial, scientific, and government missions worldwide.
• SpaceX: Chief Executive Officer – Elon Musk; Headquarters – Texas, United States of America; Establishment – 2002.

Mpemba Effect and JNCASR Simulations

Introduction

• The Mpemba effect is the phenomenon where hotter water freezes faster than colder water.

Why in news?

• Scientists from the Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR), an autonomous institute under the Department of Science and Technology (DST), have developed the first supercomputer-powered simulations to explain the Mpemba effect.

Background

• Aristotle first noted the effect in Meteorologica.
• It was rediscovered in the 20th century by Erasto Mpemba, after whom it is named.

Significance

• The findings confirm that the Mpemba effect is real.
• The effect is not limited to water and can occur in other fluid-to-solid phase transitions.
• The study deepens understanding of out-of-equilibrium phenomena.
• It offers insights for better cooling and thermal control in next-generation electronics.
• It marks a major breakthrough in nonequilibrium physics, resolving long-standing experimental and theoretical debates.

Facts/General knowledge

• Water does not freeze directly but passes through short-lived intermediate molecular states.
• Depending on the starting temperature, water can remain trapped in these states for different durations.
• Hotter water can sometimes bypass these delays and reach ice nucleation faster than colder water.

DRDO’s SWaDeS Portable Water Purifier for Soldiers

Introduction

• India’s defence research ecosystem has developed a portable water purification system for troops in extreme and remote conditions.
• Designed mainly for soldiers, it converts saline water into safe drinking water.
• Ensures reliable hydration during long patrols and deployments in water-scarce regions.

Why in news?

• The Defence Research and Development Organisation has developed a hand-operated Sea Water Desalination System (SWaDeS).
• It addresses the drinking water needs of soldiers in remote, coastal, and high-altitude areas.

Background

• The system has been developed by the Defence Laboratory, Jodhpur.
• It is lightweight and suitable for field conditions.

Significance

• Enhances self-sufficiency of soldiers in the field.
• Supports long-range patrols and isolated deployments.
• Useful for naval operations and coastal installations.
• Can be deployed in inland saline areas like Pangong Tso in Ladakh.
• Supports troops near borders and in remote terrain.
• Designed for regions with limited freshwater availability.

Facts/General knowledge

• The system is named Sea Water Desalination System (SWaDeS).
• It can operate manually or using an engine.
• The manual version can be carried by a single soldier.
• The manual version can meet emergency water needs of 10–12 personnel.
• The engine-operated version can support 20–25 soldiers.
• It reduces water salinity from 35,000 mg/L TDS to below 500 mg/L.
• It purifies saline water into potable drinking water.

Param Shakti Supercomputing Facility

Introduction

• ‘Param Shakti’ is a 3.1 petaflop, indigenously developed and manufactured supercomputing system.
• Launched by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology at the Indian Institute of Technology Madras.
• Funded under the National Supercomputing Mission.

Why in news?

• The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology launched ‘Param Shakti’ at the Indian Institute of Technology Madras.

Background

• Built using the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing’s RUDRA series of servers.
• Operates on an open-source software stack, including AlmaLinux.
• Recognised among the most powerful computational systems available in Indian academic institutions.
• National Supercomputing Mission (launched in 2015) aims to connect national academic and R&D institutions with a grid of over 70 high-performance computing facilities.
• Supercomputers under the Mission are networked on the National Supercomputing grid over the National Knowledge Network.
• The Mission is jointly steered by the Department of Science and Technology and the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, and implemented by the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing, Pune, and the Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru.

Significance

• Expected to support complex research in aerospace engineering.
• Enables advanced work in materials science and climate modelling.
• Facilitates drug discovery and advanced manufacturing research.

Facts/General knowledge

• PARAM 8000 is India’s first supercomputer.
• Param Pravega is the largest supercomputer.
• Param Shivay is the first indigenously built supercomputer.
• AIRAWAT is a common computer platform for AI research and knowledge assimilation.

Kavach 4.0 Expansion in Indian Railways

Introduction

• Kavach is India’s indigenous Automatic Train Protection (ATP) system, with Version 4.0 being the most advanced iteration.
• It enhances train operations through continuous monitoring and automated safety interventions.

Why in news?

• Indian Railways commissioned 472.3 route kilometres of Kavach Version 4.0 in a single day, the highest-ever rollout achieved in a day and month.
• The commissioning covered key sections on Western, Northern, and East Central Railways.
• Total Kavach 4.0 coverage has expanded to 1,306.3 route kilometres across five railway zones.

Background

• Developed since 2012 as the Train Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) and later rechristened as Kavach, meaning “armour”.
• Version 4.0 has evolved through continuous upgrades based on operational feedback.

Significance

• Designed for India’s high-density, multi-line rail network, offering faster response and higher reliability.
• Provides seamless integration with existing signalling and interlocking systems.
• Automatically prevents Signal Passing at Danger (SPAD), controls overspeeding, and applies brakes to avert collisions.
• Ensures safe operation in low visibility and adverse weather, and alerts the loco pilot about wrong-direction movements and level-crossing gates.
• Complies with Safety Integrity Level (SIL)-4 and is approved by the Research Designs and Standards Organisation (RDSO).

Facts/General knowledge

• Technology base integrates microprocessors, Global Positioning System (GPS), and radio communication to track train position, speed, and signalling status.